Examples of knowledge questions
Core theme: Knowledge and the knower
Knowledge and indigenous societies
The TOK curriculum centres around the exploration of knowledge questions. Knowledge questions are crucial to effective TOK discussions as they help to make sure that students are focusing on questions about knowledge itself and about how we know things. Knowledge questions help students to move beyond subject-specific questions or specific real-life situations into the realm of TOK.
Knowledge questions are questions about knowledge—about how knowledge is produced, acquired, shared and used; what it is and what it is not; who has it and who does not; and who decides the answers to these questions. Instead of focusing on subject-specific content or specific examples, students focus on how knowledge is constructed and evaluated. In this sense, knowledge questions are distinct from many of the questions that students encounter in their other subjects.
Knowledge questions are contestable in that there are a number of plausible answers to them. Dealing with these open contestable questions is a key feature of TOK, although some students can find the lack of a single “right” answer slightly disorienting. In TOK discussions, it is perfectly conceivable that answers to a question may differ—what matters is that the analysis is thorough, accurate and effectively supported by examples and evidence.
Knowledge questions also draw on TOK concepts and terminology, rather than using subject-specific terminology or specific examples. Knowledge questions draw on central TOK concepts such as evidence, certainty, values, and interpretation.
Figure 2 - Knowledge questions
Knowledge questions are the key tool for teaching and learning in TOK. The two assessment tasks—the TOK exhibition and TOK essay—centre on the exploration of knowledge questions as both the Internal Assessment (IA) prompts and the prescribed essay titles take the form of knowledge questions. It is therefore crucial that students engage with the exploration and discussion of knowledge questions throughout the TOK course.
Knowledge questions play a crucial role in helping students to move beyond subject specific questions or specific real-life situations into TOK discussions that are focused explicitly on knowledge.
Specific situations/question |
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Knowledge question |
Studying the views of two different historians in a DP history lesson |
→→ | How can we decide between the judgments of experts if they disagree with each other? |
A newspaper article on predicting future population growth in Africa |
→→ | How can a model be useful even if it is obviously false? |
A journal article detailing the outcomes of a medical trial of an experimental new drug |
→→ | What ethical constraints should there be on the pursuit of knowledge? |
A discussion of “Pascal’s triangle” in a mathematics lesson |
→→ | How significant have notable individuals been in shaping the development of mathematics as an area of knowledge? |
Watching a video of a talk on compassion, happiness and inner peace by the Dalai Lama |
→→ | Does some knowledge belong only to particular communities of knowers? |
Should driverless cars be programmed to protect the passenger in the car or a pedestrian in the case of an accident? |
→→ | In what ways do ethical judgments differ from other kinds of judgments? |
Throughout this guide, examples of knowledge questions are suggested for each of the themes and areas of knowledge. In order to encourage and support students in making comparisons and connections across different elements of the course, the knowledge questions suggested for each theme and area of knowledge are organized into a “knowledge framework” consisting of four common elements: scope, perspectives, methods and tools, and ethics.
These four elements provide a structure to help students explore and analyse the different aspects of the course, as well as providing a common vocabulary to help encourage comparisons and connections. They can also provide a useful starting point to help non-TOK teachers make links to TOK in their other DP subjects.
The knowledge questions suggested in this guide for each theme and area of knowledge are suggested examples only; they are not prescriptive. Teachers are free to explore the themes and areas of knowledge using a variety of different examples and knowledge questions of their choice. However, teachers are required to ensure that, within their discussions of each theme and area of knowledge, they include discussion of examples and knowledge questions that relate to each of the four elements.
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This element focuses on exploring the nature and scope of the different themes and areas of knowledge. It explores how each theme/area of knowledge fits within the totality of human knowledge, and also considers the nature of the problems that each theme/area of knowledge faces and tries to address. Examples of knowledge questions relating to scope include the following.
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Perspectives |
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This element focuses on the importance and influence of perspectives and context. This includes reflection on the students’ own perspectives and what informs them, as well as how different people or groups view or approach knowledge in the different themes/areas of knowledge. It also includes reflection on historical perspectives and how knowledge changes over time. Examples of knowledge questions relating to perspectives include the following.
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Methods and Tools |
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This element focuses on exploring the methods, tools and practices that we use to produce knowledge. This includes the building of conceptual frameworks, the establishing of traditions and practices, as well as the methodologies employed by formal disciplines. It also includes consideration of the cognitive and material tools that we have available to help us in the pursuit of knowledge, and of how these tools have changed as a result of technological developments. Examples of knowledge questions relating to methods and tools include the following.
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Ethics |
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This element focuses on exploring ethics and the ethical considerations that have an impact on inquiry in the different themes and areas of knowledge. This includes aspects such as the relationship between facts and values, and how ethical and epistemic values are built into the quest for knowledge. It also includes questions relating to knowledge and inequality and injustice. It is crucial that TOK discussions about ethics focus on the knowledge questions that are woven into, and implied, in the ethical issues being discussed, rather than the focus being on debating the ethical issues themselves. Examples of knowledge questions relating to ethics include the following.
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The core theme—knowledge and the knower—provides an opportunity for students to reflect on what shapes their perspective as a knower, where their values come from, and how they make sense of, and navigate, the world around them.
Importantly, this theme does not focus exclusively on the individual knower. It also considers aspects such as the impact of the different communities of knowers to which we belong, and how knowledge is constructed, critically examined, evaluated and renewed by communities and individuals. This includes reflection on how our interactions with others and with the material world shape our knowledge.
This theme encourages careful and critical consideration of claims, provoking students to reflect on how we distinguish between claims that are contestable and claims that are not. It highlights the importance of not simply accepting claims at face value, and then explores how this can be reconciled with a recognition that many situations require us to make decisions without possessing absolute certainty.
The core theme has been explicitly designed to provide rich opportunities for teachers and students to make links to the IB learner profile. Students are encouraged to consider both the power and the limitations of the tools that they have at their disposal as knowers and thinkers, and to become more aware of their own biases and assumptions. They could also consider what it really means to be open-minded or consider the importance of caring about how knowledge is used and controlled.
Figure 3 - Me as a knower and a thinker
Another interesting focus for discussions could be to explore how we perceive and construct our understanding of the world. This could include consideration of the way that culture can be seen as a lens through which we look at the world, or the impact of filters, image manipulation and propaganda. For example, students could consider at what point filters become more important than what really exists, or the influence of hidden assumptions in shaping us as knowers.
There are many possible ways to approach and structure the core theme in the classroom. For example, teachers may choose to “bookend” the TOK course with the core theme—using it as a way to start and end the course, as well as spiralling back to the theme at relevant moments throughout the optional themes and areas of knowledge. Additional guidance and examples on how the core theme could potentially be approached can be found in the Theory of knowledge teacher support material.
Whatever approach to the core theme is taken, it is crucial that the focus remains clearly on knowledge. Teachers must also ensure that within their exploration of the theme, they engage with the four compulsory elements required in every part of the TOK curriculum: scope, perspectives, methods and tools, and ethics. Suggested knowledge questions for each of these elements are provided in the following table, but these should not be taken as prescriptive or exhaustive.
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The optional themes allow for a more in-depth look at two themes that are of particular interest to the TOK teacher and students.
Teachers must select two optional themes from the following five options.
These five themes have been selected because of their contemporary real-world relevance and their rich potential to stimulate interesting and engaging TOK discussions around key areas, such as the justification of, and evidence for, claims.
It is intended that all five of these optional themes will have strong links to, and extend from, the core theme—Knowledge and the knower. Whereas the core theme focuses on the student and the particular communities of knowers that they belong to, the optional themes broaden the focus to five factors that have a huge impact on the world today and that play a particularly key role in shaping people’s perspectives and identities. They raise issues that students are likely to encounter in their lives both within and, importantly, beyond their school experiences.
The following sections contain guidance on each of these five optional themes. It should be noted that the themes allow for a great deal of flexibility in how they are approached. There is opportunity for teachers to explore a wide range of concepts and issues, and to provide a wide variety of engaging examples. However, for each of the optional themes selected for study, teachers must ensure that the focus remains clearly on knowledge in that theme, and that they engage with the four compulsory elements required in every part of the syllabus: scope, perspectives, methods and tools, and ethics.
The following sections contain suggested knowledge questions that could be used to explore these four required elements in each optional theme; these are suggestions only and should not be taken as prescriptive or exhaustive.
For many, advances in technology have provided easy access to massive amounts of data and information, and have facilitated unprecedented levels of global interaction. However, they have also raised important questions about how we engage with, and understand, information; about our understanding of the world; and about our understanding of ourselves.
This optional theme focuses on issues relating to the impact of technology on knowledge and knowers, and how technology helps and hinders our pursuit of knowledge. It examines the ways that technology can be seen to shape knowledge creation, knowledge sharing and exchange, and even the nature of knowledge itself.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to engage with highly topical and engaging issues, such as those relating to the impact of artificial intelligence on knowledge and knowing. For example, there could be discussion of whether humans are needed to create new knowledge; whether machines can know, think or learn; or whether a knower is always human.
It also provides excellent opportunities for discussions of ethical and power issues relating to emerging technologies. For example, students could consider examples relating to biometric data, or situations where people are unaware that their personal data is being collected. As in all elements of the course, it is crucial that these discussions focus explicitly on the knowledge questions that are woven into these discussions, rather than debating the ethical issues themselves. For example, students could consider the example of driverless cars—as a 21st-century variation on the “trolley problem”—as a way to identify issues about the assumptions that underpin, and the criteria we use to make, our moral decisions.
Social networks are another rich source of examples that could be discussed in this theme. For example, there could be discussion of the impact of social networks on knowledge sharing, or of whether social networks create “echo chambers” that reinforce existing perspectives rather than boosting engagement with diverse perspectives.
In addition to examples arising from the “information age”, this theme also provides an opportunity for discussion of the impact of historical technological developments on knowledge and knowing. For example, students could consider the impact of developments such as mass printing or machine translation on access to knowledge. They could also consider the impact of technological developments such as advances in navigational instruments and map-making, or developments in air travel, and how these have had an impact on the transmission of knowledge and have allowed us to gain greater knowledge of different places and cultures.
It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than consisting of general discussions about technology. The following examples of knowledge questions can help to ensure this focus.
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Ethics |
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Language is an essential part of our daily lives, with most of our knowledge coming to us linguistically encoded. It plays an important role in communicating and sharing knowledge and has a significant impact on the way that we experience the world. However, some see language as having an even more central role, arguing that language doesn’t just describe our experiences of the world but, in fact, actually structures those experiences, limiting and shaping what we know.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to reflect on the role that language plays in our lives, and the influence it has on thought and behaviour. It also encourages students to draw on their personal experience of language-learning as part of their DP studies. For example, students could reflect on what knowledge of a language consists of, and how that is similar to, or different from, other forms of knowledge. They could also consider the extent to which how we know and what we know is dependent on, and differs according to, the language that we use.
This theme encourages students to reflect on the role of language in allowing knowledge to be shared with others. Language plays a key role in the communication and dissemination of knowledge; it also enables knowledge to be accumulated for, and passed down to, future generations. Language is also key to how claims are exposed to public scrutiny; it enables what we think to be communicated, debated, confirmed or refuted. These characteristics provide extremely rich material for TOK discussions.
One interesting focus for discussions in this theme could be language and power. For example, students could consider the role of language in sustaining relationships of authority by considering how control of written language can create or reinforce power structures, or by considering the way that we change our language depending on who we are speaking to. They could also consider the role of language in creating and reinforcing distinctions of class, ethnicity and gender.
Another interesting example that could be discussed in this theme is non-human communication. For example, students could explore how technological developments have affected the ways that language is used and the ways that communication takes place, or the nature and qualities of “machine language”. This could also include wider discussion of what qualities and features other forms of communication, such as animal communication, might need to have in order to be considered a language.
It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than consisting of general discussions about language. The following examples of knowledge questions can help to ensure this focus.
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Knowledge itself has an intrinsically political dimension, as questions about how knowledge is constructed, used and disseminated are infused with issues relating to power and politics. Political issues and decisions also affect our daily lives in many different ways.
This theme provides an opportunity for discussions about the practice of politics and our everyday interactions with politics in the world around us. For example, this theme is intended to provide an opportunity to engage with high-profile contemporary debates and examples, such as those around “fake news” and “post-truth politics”. It considers where our political views and values come from, and how these inform and influence other areas of our lives. It encourages students to consider the role and origin of their own political beliefs and positions, as well as exploring issues relating to how groups make decisions that affect large numbers of people.
Another key focus of this theme is the “politics of knowledge” and issues around knowledge, power and oppression. This could, for example, include discussion of the concept of “epistemic injustice” and situations where someone’s knowledge or expertise may be dismissed because they are a member of a particular social group. It could also include exploration of examples relating to the control of knowledge; for example, cases where political leaders and groups (such as the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia) have attempted to eradicate specific bodies of knowledge, “rewrite” history or persecute educated elites.
Within this theme, there could be discussions around the impact of technology and the potential of new technologies to give political actors new powers. For example, students could consider the increasing focus on data analytics in shaping political policies and decision-making. They could also consider the impact of social media on political discussion, or the challenges of reducing complex political issues into media-friendly “sound bites”.
Another interesting possible area of discussion could be around persuasion, manipulation, misinformation and propaganda. This could include discussion of examples where facts and knowledge have been systematically distorted for political gain, or where political actors have denied or subverted knowledge. It could also lead to a discussion of the differences between political rhetoric and propaganda, as well as interesting reflections on the role of think tanks, pressure groups, political activists, funded research and fact checkers.
It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than consisting of general discussions about politics or political issues. The following examples of knowledge questions can help to ensure this focus.
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For many people, religion has a major impact on how they understand the world. It permeates their thinking and influences their understanding of other areas, providing a backdrop to all of the other knowledge they possess. Religions themselves also generate specific claims about knowledge, as well as competing assertions and interpretations.
This theme provides an opportunity for students to think carefully, critically and respectfully about knowledge and religion, and to reflect on the significant impact that religion has on how we view the world. Religion is often regarded as a sensitive area in which discussions should be had with caution, in part because people have very personal and deeply held convictions regarding religious matters. Yet many of the features that make religion such a contentious topic are exactly the features that make it highly engaging for students and hugely relevant for a course such as TOK.
Religion provides rich ground for TOK discussions as religions are often complex systems of beliefs, practices, assumptions and values. Religions also raise interesting issues around the exchange of knowledge between individuals and groups. Within their discussions in this theme, students are encouraged to consider the diversity of perspectives within individual religions as well as across different religions; for example, considering fundamentalist, conservative and liberal perspectives within Christianity.
An example of a particularly interesting area of discussion in relation to this theme concerns the concept of evidence. Critics often argue that religions lack convincing evidence to support their claims and beliefs. However, others argue that criticism surrounding the evidence for religious claims is misplaced, arguing that religious knowledge is an example of a kind of knowledge that is not based on empirical evidence. Indeed, in some traditions belief that is not based on evidence is seen as superior to belief that is based on evidence, as the demand for concrete evidence is seen to signify a lack of faith or a misunderstanding of the nature of religion.
Another interesting area to consider could be the relationship between religion and morality, and whether religion and ethics are inextricably linked. For example, students could consider whether religion provides a way to systematize concepts of right and wrong, or whether religious claims carry any particular obligation or responsibility for the knower.
It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than consisting of general discussions about religion. The following examples of knowledge questions can help to ensure this focus.
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In recent years there has been increasing global awareness of the historic and ongoing injustices that many groups of indigenous peoples have faced, and of how threats to indigenous societies can lead to a loss of traditional knowledge and cultural diversity. For example, in 2007 the UN adopted the “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples”, which includes the statement that “Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures”.
This optional theme provides an opportunity to undertake a more detailed exploration of knowledge that is principally bound to a particular group, culture or society. It focuses on knowledge that is deeply embedded in the culture and traditions of particular communities of knowers, and how what might be seen as “traditional” indigenous knowledge and societies operate today.
In their discussions in this theme, it is important that students are encouraged to reflect critically on the category “indigenous societies” itself. For example, this could consist of discussion of the history and context of the emergence of the word “indigenous” and its contested meanings. It could also include discussion of the power relations that influence hierarchies of how knowledge is classified and validated.
Students should be encouraged to consider the diversity of indigenous societies, as well as the diversity within these societies, and to avoid the assumption that all members of a particular culture or society will share exactly the same outlook and values. Students should also be encouraged to engage with specific examples rather than generalizations; for example, they could explore the impact of the building of the Ok Tedi mine on the Wopkaimin people of Papua New Guinea, or the importance of music and traditional craftsmanship to the Namaqua people of Southern Africa.
This theme provides an opportunity for discussion of areas such as the focus in many indigenous societies on a holistic view of knowledge, and on the particularly long-standing and close relationships between many indigenous societies and the natural world. It provides an opportunity for rich conversations around examples such as the embodiment and transmission of knowledge in traditional artistic and cultural practices, rituals and objects.
Another interesting area of discussion within this theme could be the impact and legacy of colonialism on indigenous societies, or how external influences, such as globalization, have brought about changes and challenges in relation to the ownership and custodianship of knowledge in indigenous societies. There could be discussion of how some kinds of knowledge have often been devalued; for example, through an emphasis on the primacy of science, or the viewing of oral tradition as inferior to the written word.
It is crucial that discussions within this optional theme stay focused explicitly on knowledge rather than consisting of general discussions about indigenous societies. The following examples of knowledge questions can help to ensure this focus.
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Areas of knowledge are structures within which much human knowledge is organized. In these areas there are often socially established methods for producing knowledge, as well as norms for what counts as a fact or a good explanation.
Students are required to study all five of the following areas of knowledge.
Within their discussions, students should be encouraged to think about, and draw examples from, specific individual academic disciplines that are included within the different areas of knowledge.
The following sections contain guidance and examples of knowledge questions for each of these five compulsory areas of knowledge. These are suggestions only and should not be taken as prescriptive or exhaustive. However, teachers must ensure that the focus remains clearly on knowledge in that area, and that they engage with the four compulsory elements required in every part of the syllabus: scope, perspectives, methods and tools and ethics.
TOK discussions should explore the different areas of knowledge to deepen students’ understanding of what it is that gives each area its character. Crucially, a key focus should then also be on encouraging students to make comparisons and connections across the areas of knowledge.
The “knowledge framework” is intended to help support comparisons across areas of knowledge. These four elements provide a useful vocabulary for making effective comparisons. For example, within “perspectives” students could compare how knowledge changes over time in the different areas of knowledge. Although knowledge in these areas is often highly structured and systematic in nature, it also changes and evolves over time. These changes may be slow and incremental, as areas of knowledge often possess a certain stability. However, changes can also be more sudden and dramatic shifts as an area of knowledge responds to, for example, new experimental results, advances in underlying theories or changes in technology.
It is important to note that comparing and contrasting the various areas of knowledge involves not only exploring features that they have in common, but also examining their differences. Comparison of different areas of knowledge is also an evaluative task, as opposed to being simply descriptive. It involves critical appraisal of similarities and differences between the areas of knowledge, rather than simply their identification.
More guidance on making effective connections across the areas of knowledge can be found in the Theory of knowledge teacher support material.
Studying history involves exploration and inquiry into the past. This raises questions about whether it is possible to talk meaningfully about a historical fact, or how far we can speak with certainty about anything in the past.
History provides particularly interesting material for TOK discussions because of the challenges presented by not being able to directly observe the past, and because the historian is unable to utilize some of the methods of inquiry that are used in other areas of knowledge. Studying history can also promote empathy with, and understanding of, people living in diverse places and at different times. These characteristics open up many interesting issues and questions that are unique, or particularly pertinent, to history as an area of knowledge.
As we cannot directly observe historical events, documentary evidence plays a vital role in helping historians to understand and interpret the past. This raises questions about the reliability of that evidence, particularly given that historical sources are often incomplete and that different sources can corroborate, complement or contradict each other.
In addition to being heavily evidence-based, history is also an interpretive discipline that allows for multiple perspectives and opinions. Students could be encouraged to consider the role and importance of historians, particularly in terms of why their interpretations may differ or how we evaluate conflicting interpretations of past events. Students could also consider why some might claim that there is always a subjective element in historical writing because historians are influenced by the historical and social environment in which they are writing—which unavoidably affects their selection and interpretation of evidence.
An interesting focus for discussions could be the concept of historical significance. For example, students could consider why particular aspects of history have been recorded and preserved whereas others have been lost or excluded from historical accounts. They could also consider the way that history is sometimes used to promote a particular dominant perspective or consider how specific groups, such as minorities or women, may have experienced events in the past differently. This could connect to reflection on recent controversies surrounding the historical events taught, and history textbooks used, in high school history lessons in various countries around the world. This could include how different textbooks can sometimes tell different versions of history.
Examples of knowledge questions arising from this area of knowledge are suggested below.
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The human sciences include a diverse range of disciplines, such as psychology, social and cultural anthropology, economics, political science, and geography. These disciplines share a common focus on the study of human existence and behaviour.
The diversity of the disciplines included within the human sciences can itself be a stimulus for interesting TOK discussions, as can the coexistence of different approaches within a single discipline (for example psychodynamic versus behaviourist versus humanistic approaches in psychology).
One interesting focus for discussion could be, for example, whether there are fundamental differences between the human sciences and the natural sciences in terms of how they interpret the word “science”, the methods they use for collecting data, or how they test the validity and reliability of hypotheses.
Another interesting focus for discussion could be the use of questionnaires and polls in the human sciences. This could include whether the results of questionnaires can be reliable given the challenges around neutral language, leading questions, or sampling and selection effect. It could also include discussion of issues relating to respondents not being truthful or deliberately giving misleading responses.
Students could also be encouraged to consider the ways in which social, political, cultural or financial factors may affect the types of research that are supported and financed in the human sciences. For example, market research is often undertaken as a way for companies to increase their profits, and social science research sometimes seeks to influence public policy. This can raise interesting questions about the purpose and context within which knowledge is pursued in the human sciences.
Examples of knowledge questions arising from this area of knowledge are suggested below.
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The natural sciences are often seen to rely on evidence, rationality and the quest for deeper understanding. Observation and experimentation play a key role, and terms such as “theory” have a special meaning in the natural sciences compared to how they are used in daily life and in other areas of knowledge.
A focus for discussions of the natural sciences could be what differentiates the scientific from the non-scientific or “pseudo-scientific”. Many people would suggest that it is the methods used in the natural sciences that is the key distinguishing factor—which raises the question of what it is about these methods that means that the knowledge they generate is often regarded as being highly reliable. Students could also consider whether the word “science” means different things in different languages, or whether it has been used differently in different periods of history.
Another interesting focus for discussions could be scientific development, revolutions and paradigm shifts. This could include what is meant by a paradigm shift, whether scientific knowledge has always grown, or how technological developments have driven scientific progress and discoveries. It could also include reflection on whether we could ever reach a point where everything important to the natural sciences is known.
Students could also consider the role of consensus in the natural sciences, and the role and importance of the “scientific community”. For example, they could consider the role of peer review as a method of scrutinizing scientific claims and the extent to which this is an effective and objective form of self-regulation. This could lead to discussions of whether or not scientific knowledge is, or should be, amenable to public scrutiny. It could also lead to wider reflection on whether there are commonly agreed values, methodologies and assumptions about knowledge that underpin all scientific inquiry.
Another rich source of material for TOK discussions relating to the natural sciences can come from the issue of funding. A great deal of scientific research is funded by private for-profit companies and by governments, which raises interesting questions around how the priorities for funding scientific research are determined and who it is that determines which research directions are pursued.
Examples of knowledge questions arising from this area of knowledge are suggested below.
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“The arts” is used in TOK to include a diverse range of disciplines such as visual arts, theatre, dance, music, film and literature. The forms and methods of these disciplines are often dissimilar, so the diversity within this single area of knowledge can itself be an excellent stimulus for TOK discussions.
The arts provide rich material for discussions of concepts such as interpretation. For example, students could consider how we ascribe meaning to works of art, or whether the intention of the artist is what determines meaning. During these discussions, students could be encouraged to draw on their experiences from their DP studies in language and literature classes, where they are required to understand and interpret a range of texts.
Students could also consider the role of the audience in the arts. This could include, for example, whether art requires a response from, or an emotional interaction with, an audience. It could also include the role of critics and experts, and whether everyone is an equally competent judge in the arts.
Another interesting focus for discussions could be the social character and function of the arts. This could include the way that the arts are often seen as helping to shed light on fundamental questions about the human condition, or how the arts are often regarded as having an important function as a medium for social criticism and a vehicle for social change.
Discussions of the arts could also focus on exploring whether there are, or should be, limits to what is acceptable in art. Students could consider examples of controversial works of art, such as Marco Evaristti’s Helena or Sruli Recht’s Forget Me Knot, considering whether there should be ethical constraints on the pursuit of knowledge in the arts, or whether artists or audiences have any particular ethical responsibilities.
Another focus for discussions could be the relationship between arts and culture. Students could explore art forms and art works that are strongly rooted in a particular culture or tradition, as well as reflecting on the diversity of the arts across time, cultures and contexts. Students could also explore examples of “outsider art” as a way to stimulate conversations about the potential for art to challenge established values.
Examples of knowledge questions arising from this area of knowledge are suggested below.
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Mathematics is sometimes seen to have a degree of certainty that is unmatched by other areas of knowledge or is seen to be founded on a set of more or less universally accepted definitions and basic assumptions. This makes mathematics an excellent source of material for TOK discussions.
One interesting focus for discussions could be the status of mathematics as an area of knowledge. Students could consider why disciplines in the human sciences are often keen to cast their conclusions in mathematical terms, or why mathematical treatments of a topic are often taken by many to be a sign of intellectual rigour. They could also consider why mathematics is often given a privileged position in many education systems.
Another rich source of material for TOK discussions can be the role of creativity, imagination, beauty and elegance in mathematics. Despite, or perhaps because of, the strict confines of mathematical logic, mathematics can be an enormously creative subject, asking its practitioners to make great leaps of imagination. This could lead to discussion of whether, or why, elegance and beauty should be relevant to mathematical value.
Another interesting focus could be the relationship between mathematics and the world around us. Mathematics is often used to model real-world processes. Yet, in some ways, mathematics can also seem quite abstract and detached from the real world, strongly focused on the application of reason rather than relying on experience and observation of the world.
Students could also consider the role and significance of proof in mathematics, and how this relates to concepts such as truth. They could reflect on whether the term “proof” is used differently in mathematics compared to how it is used in our everyday lives or in other areas of knowledge.
Examples of knowledge questions arising from this area of knowledge are suggested below.
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